Low depression scores among pet dog owners – a comparative cross-sectional study from Anuradhapura Sri Lanka
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.15584/ejcem.2024.4.14Keywords:
canine-companionship, cortisol, depression, income, one health, stressAbstract
Introduction and aim. The role of canine companionship in psychosocial and cardiovascular health is increasingly explored. However, such studies are scarce in South Asia. Hence, we aim to compare psychosocial and cardiovascular indices between pet dog owners and age and sex-matched non-pet owners in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka.
Material and methods. A community-based, comparative, cross-sectional study was done among 52 pet dog owners and 52 age, sex-matched non-pet owners. An allostatic load was calculated using predefined cutoffs. Chi-square (or Fisher’s exact), Mann Whitney U, and Spearman’s rho were performed (p<0.05).
Results. The pet dog owners’ group had a significantly lower mean (SD) [7.8 (7.2)], and median (interquartile range) [6 (2–12.5)] depression score when compared to the non-pet owners [11.2 (8.6)], 10 (6–14.5) respectively (p=0.03). Also, the pet dog owners showed a significant negative correlation between the pet bond scale score and cortisol (r=-0.36, p=0.01).
Conclusion. A significantly lower depression score in the pet dog owners’ group than in the non-pet owners’ group was observed. And, the pet bond score had a significant negative correlation with the stress hormone cortisol. Thus, pet dog ownership could improve psychosocial health and will guide towards one-health interventions and research among South Asian communities.
Supporting Agencies
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency. Laboratory analysis was conducted by using the Dean’s Awards received by the first author (DR) from the Faculty of Medicine and Allied Sciences, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. The above agent did not influence the design of the study, collection, analysis and interpretation of data or the writing of the manuscript.Downloads
References
Janssens L, Giemsch L, Schmitz R, Street M, Van Dongen S, Crombé P. A new look at an old dog: Bonn-Oberkassel reconsidered. J Archaeol Sci. 2018;92:126-138. doi: 10.1016/j.jas.2018.01.004
Cohen SP. Can Pets Function as Family Members? West J Nurs Res. 2002;24(6):621-638. doi: 10.1177/019394502320555386
Wood L, Martin K, Christian H, et al. The pet factor-companion animals as a conduit for getting to know people, friendship formation and social support. PLoS One. 2015;10(4):e0122085. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0122085
Xie ZY, Zhao D, Chen BR, et al. Association between pet ownership and coronary artery disease in a Chinese population. Medicine (Baltimore). 2017;96(13):e6466. doi: 10.1097/MD.0000000000006466
Scoresby KJ, Strand EB, Ng Z, et al. Pet Ownership and Quality of Life: A Systematic Review of the Literature. Vet Sci. 2021;8(12):332. doi: 10.3390/vetsci8120332
Kramer CK, Mehmood S, Suen RS. Dog Ownership and Survival: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes. 2019;12(10):e005554. doi: 10.1161/CIRCOUTCOMES.119.005554
Maugeri A, Medina-Inojosa JR, Kunzova S, et al. Dog Ownership and Cardiovascular Health: Results From the Kardiovize 2030 Project. Mayo Clin Proc Innov Qual Outcomes. 2019;3(3):268-275. doi: 10.1016/j.mayocpiqo.2019.07.007
Aiba N, Hotta K, Yokoyama M, et al. Usefulness of Pet Ownership as a Modulator of Cardiac Autonomic Imbalance in Patients With Diabetes Mellitus, Hypertension, and/or Hyperlipidemia. Am J Cardiol. 2012;109(8):1164-1170. doi: 10.1016/j.amjcard.2011.11.055
Friedmann E, Thomas SA. Pet ownership, social support, and one-year survival after acute myocardial infarction in the Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST). Am J Cardiol. 1995;76(17):1213-1217. doi: 10.1016/S0002-9149(99)80343-9
Surma S, Oparil S, Narkiewicz K. Pet Ownership and the Risk of Arterial Hypertension and Cardiovascular Disease. Curr Hypertens Rep. 2022;24(8):295-302. doi: 10.1007/s11906-022-01191-8
Lentino C, Visek AJ, McDonnell K, DiPietro L. Dog walking is associated with a favorable risk profile independent of moderate to high volume of physical activity. J Phys Act Health. 2012;9(3):414-420. doi: 10.1123/jpah.9.3.414
Arhant-Sudhir K, Arhant-Sudhir R, Sudhir K. Pet ownership and cardiovascular risk reduction: Supporting evidence, conflicting data and underlying mechanisms. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 2011;38(11):734-738. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1681.2011.05583.x
Krittanawong C, Kumar A, Wang Z, Jneid H, Virani SS, Levine GN. Pet Ownership and Cardiovascular Health in the US General Population. Am J Cardiol. 2020;125(8):1158-1161. doi: 10.1016/j.amjcard.2020.01.030
Levine GN, Allen K, Braun LT, et al. Pet Ownership and Cardiovascular Risk. Circulation. 2013;127(23):2353-2363. doi: 10.1161/CIR.0b013e31829201e1
Osborne MT, Shin LM, Mehta NN, Pitman RK, Fayad ZA, Tawakol A. Disentangling the Links Between Psychosocial Stress and Cardiovascular Disease. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging. 2020;13(8):e010931. doi: 10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.120.010931
Steptoe A, Kivimäki M. Stress and cardiovascular disease. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2012;9(6):360-370. doi: 10.1038/nrcardio.2012.45
Song H, Fang F, Arnberg FK, et al. Stress related disorders and risk of cardiovascular disease: population based, sibling controlled cohort study. BMJ. 2019;365:l1255. doi: 10.1136/bmj.l1255
Delgado C, Toukonen M, Wheeler C. Effect of Canine Play Interventions as a Stress Reduction Strategy in College Students. Nurse Educ. 2018;43(3):149-153. doi: 10.1097/NNE.0000000000000451
Krause-Parello CA, Levy C, Holman E, Kolassa JE. Effects of VA Facility Dog on Hospitalized Veterans Seen by a Palliative Care Psychologist: An Innovative Approach to Impacting Stress Indicators. Am J Hosp Palliat Med. 2018;35(1):5-14. doi: 10.1177/1049909116675571
Morales-Jinez A, López-Rincón FJ, Ugarte-Esquivel A, Andrade-Valles I, Rodríguez-Mejía LE, Hernández-Torres JL. Allostatic load and canine companionship: a comparative study using biomarkers in older adults. Rev Lat Am Enfermagem. 2018;26:e3071. doi: 10.1590/1518-8345.2755.3071
Rathish D, Rajapakse RPVJ, Weerakoon KGAD. The role of cortisol in the association of canine-companionship with blood pressure, glucose, and lipids: a systematic review. High Blood Press Cardiovasc Prev. 2021;28(5):447-455. doi: 10.1007/s40292-021-00469-3
Rathish D, Rajapakse RPVJ, Weerakoon KGAD. Dogs, Mental Stress and the Human Heart: Role of Cortisol and Neuropeptide Y. Int J Hum Heal Sci. 2023;7(1):15-19. doi: 10.31344/ijhhs.v7i1.491
Kelly JJ, Mangos G, Williamson PM, Whitworth JA. Cortisol and hypertension. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol Suppl. 1998;25:S51-S56. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1681.1998.tb02301.x
Siddiqui A, Madhu S V, Sharma SB, Desai NG. Endocrine stress responses and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Stress. 2015:18(5):498-506. doi: 10.3109/10253890.2015.1067677.
Di Dalmazi G, Pasquali R, Beuschlein F, Reincke M. Subclinical hypercortisolism: a state, a syndrome, or a disease? Eur J Endocrinol. 2015;173(4):M61-M71. doi: 10.1530/EJE-15-0272
van der Sluis RJ, Hoekstra M. Glucocorticoids are active players and therapeutic targets in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2020;504:110728. doi: 10.1016/j.mce.2020.110728
Fraser R, Ingram MC, Anderson NH, Morrison C, Davies E, Connell JM. Cortisol effects on body mass, blood pressure, and cholesterol in the general population. Hypertens (Dallas, Tex 1979). 1999;33(6):1364-1368. doi: 10.1161/01.hyp.33.6.1364
Krysiak R, Obuchowicz E, Herman ZS. Interactions between the neuropeptide Y system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Eur J Endocrinol. 1999;140(2):130-136. doi: 10.1530/eje.0.1400130
Tan C, Green P, Tapoulal N, Lewandowski A, Leeson P, Herring N. The Role of Neuropeptide Y in Cardiovascular Health and Disease. Front Physiol. 2018;9:1281. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01281
Reichmann F, Holzer P. Neuropeptide Y: A stressful review. Neuropeptides. 2016;55:99-109. doi: 10.1016/j.npep.2015.09.008
Uusitupa MI, Karvonen MK, Pesonen U, Koulu M. Neuropeptide Y: A novel link between the neuroendocrine system and cholesterol metabolism. Ann Med. 1998;30(6):508-510. doi: 10.3109/07853899809002597
Huang Y, Lin X, Lin S. Neuropeptide Y and Metabolism Syndrome: An Update on Perspectives of Clinical Therapeutic Intervention Strategies. Front Cell Dev Biol. 2021;9:1-13. doi: 10.3389/fcell.2021.695623
Park MH, Jin HK, Min WK, et al. Neuropeptide Y regulates the hematopoietic stem cell microenvironment and prevents nerve injury in the bone marrow. EMBO J. 2015;34(12):1648-1660. doi: 10.15252/embj.201490174
Zhang Y, Liu CY, Chen WC, et al. Regulation of neuropeptide Y in body microenvironments and its potential application in therapies: a review. Cell Biosci. 2021;11(1):151. doi: 10.1186/s13578-021-00657-7
Michaud K, Matheson K, Kelly O, Anisman H. Impact of stressors in a natural context on release of cortisol in healthy adult humans: a meta-analysis. Stress. 2008;11(3):177-197. doi: 10.1080/10253890701727874
Noushad S, Ahmed S, Ansari B, Mustafa UH, Saleem Y, Hazrat H. Physiological biomarkers of chronic stress: A systematic review. Int J Health Sci (Qassim). 2021;15(5):46-59.
King SL, Hegadoren KM. Stress hormones: how do they measure up? Biol Res Nurs. 2002;4(2):92-103. doi: 10.1177/1099800402238334
Crawford AA, Soderberg S, Kirschbaum C, et al. Morning plasma cortisol as a cardiovascular risk factor: findings from prospective cohort and Mendelian randomization studies. Eur J Endocrinol. 2019;181(4):429-438. doi: 10.1530/EJE-19-0161
Mohd Azmi NAS, Juliana N, Azmani S, et al. Cortisol on Circadian Rhythm and Its Effect on Cardiovascular System. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(2):1-15. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18020676
Ward AM V, Fall CHD, Stein CE, et al. Cortisol and the metabolic syndrome in South Asians. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2003;58(4):500-505. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2265.2003.01750.x
Adrian TE, Allen JM, Terenghi G, et al. Neuropeptide Y in phaeochromocytomas and ganglioneuroblastomas. Lancet. 1983;2(8349):540-542. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(83)90570-6
Fletcher MA, Rosenthal M, Antoni M, et al. Plasma neuropeptide Y: a biomarker for symptom severity in chronic fatigue syndrome. Behav Brain Funct. 2010;6(1):76. doi: 10.1186/1744-9081-6-76
Tang HN, Xiao F, Chen YR, et al. Higher Serum Neuropeptide Y Levels Are Associated with Metabolically Unhealthy Obesity in Obese Chinese Adults: A Cross-Sectional Study. Mediators Inflamm. 2020;2020:7903140. doi: 10.1155/2020/7903140
DCS. Census of Population and Housing. Department of Census and Statistics, Ministry of Finance and Planning, Sri Lanka. http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/Pages/Activities/Reports/CPH_2012_5Per_Rpt.pdf. Accessed January 15, 2024.
DCS. Annual Bulletin - 2014. Sri Lanka Labour Force Survey, Department of Census and Statistics, Ministry of Finance and Planning. http://www.statistics.gov.lk/samplesurvey/LFS_Annual Bulletin_2014-f.pdf. Accessed April 1, 2020.
DCS. Population and Population Density by D.S. Division - 2020. Department of Census and Statistics. http://www.statistics.gov.lk/statistical Hbook/2021/Anuradhapura/2.4.1.pdf. Accessed January 14, 2023.
DCS. Statistical Pocket Book 2022. Department of Census and Statistics. http://www.statistics.gov.lk/Publication/PocketBook. Accessed January 14, 2023.
Rathish D, Rajapakse J, Weerakoon K. Household preferences for pet keeping: Findings from a rural district of Sri Lanka. PLoS One. 2022;17(11):e0277108. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0277108
Rathish D, Rajapakse J, Weerakoon K. “In times of stress, it is good to be with them”: experience of dog owners from a rural district of Sri Lanka. BMC Public Health. 2022;22(1):2380. doi: 10.1186/s12889-022-14863-6
CDC. Adult Tobacco Use Information. National Health Interview Survey. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhis/tobacco/tobacco_glossary.htm. Accessed December 6, 2022.
NIAAA. Drinking Levels Defined. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. https://www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/overview-alcohol-consumption/moderate-binge-drinking. Accessed December 6, 2022.
Lovibond SH, Lovibond PF. Manual for the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales. 2nd ed.; 1995. http://www2.psy.unsw.edu.au/groups/dass/. Accessed December 5, 2022.
Dheerasinghe DSAF. Dheerasinghe Sinhala translation of DASS21. DASS. Published 2022. http://www2.psy.unsw.edu.au/dass/Sinhala/Sinhala Dheerasinghe.htm. Accessed December 5, 2022.
Zimet GD, Dahlem NW, Zimet SG, Farley GK. The Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support. J Pers Assess. 1988;52(1):30-41. doi: 10.1207/s15327752jpa5201_2
Fernando S, Uluwattage W, Sirisena B, Rathish D. Non-communicable diseases, medication adherence and social support among elderly medical clinic attendees of the Teaching Hospital, Karapitiya, Sri Lanka. J Coll Community Physicians Sri Lanka. 2021;27(3):428. doi: 10.4038/jccpsl.v27i3.8396
Su B, Koda N, Martens P. How Japanese companion dog and cat owners’ degree of attachment relates to the attribution of emotions to their animals. PLoS One. 2018;13(1):e0190781. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0190781
Angle R, Blumentritt T, Swank P, ed. The Pet Bonding Scale: Internal reliability and factorial validity. In: Annual Meeting of the Southwestern Psychological Association.; 1994.
DHLT. Durdans hospital laboratory network. Durdans hospital. https://www.durdans.com/lab-network/. Accessed December 6, 2022.
EBI. Human NPY(Neuropeptide Y) ELISA Kit. Elabscience Biotechnology Inc. https://u2.elabscience.com/PDF/Cate61/E-EL-H1893-Elabscience.pdf. Accessed December 6, 2022.
Abia. Abia Cortisol. AB Diagnostic Systems GmbH. https://www.ab-ds.de/. Accessed December 6, 2022.
WHO. Prevention of cardiovascular disease: pocket guidelines for assessment and management of cardiovascular risk: (WHO/ISH cardiovascular risk prediction charts for the South-East Asia Region). World Health Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/4378.6 Accessed December 6, 2022.
Turakitwanakan W, Mekseepralard C, Busarakumtragul P. Effects of mindfulness meditation on serum cortisol of medical students. J Med Assoc Thai. 2013;96(1):90-95.
Cuculi F, Herring N, De Caterina AR, et al. Relationship of plasma neuropeptide Y with angiographic, electrocardiographic and coronary physiology indices of reperfusion during ST elevation myocardial infarction. Heart. 2013;99(16):1198-1203. doi: 10.1136/heartjnl-2012-303443
Erdogan A, Kahya Y. Comparison of Pet Owners and Non-Pet Owners in Terms of Depression, Anxiety and Quality of Life. Genel Tıp Derg. 2022;32(5):486-489. doi: 10.54005/geneltip.1100778
Chakma SK, Islam TT, Shahjalal M, Mitra DK. Depression among pet owners and non-pet owners: a comparative cross-sectional study in Dhaka, Bangladesh. F1000Research. 2021;10:574. doi: 10.12688/f1000research.53276.2
Martin F, Bachert KE, Snow L, Tu HW, Belahbib J, Lyn SA. Depression, anxiety, and happiness in dog owners and potential dog owners during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States. PLoS One. 2021;16(12):e0260676. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0260676
Powell L, Edwards KM, McGreevy P, et al. Companion dog acquisition and mental well-being: a community-based three-arm controlled study. BMC Public Health. 2019;19(1):1428. doi: 10.1186/s12889-019-7770-5
Hui Gan GZ, Hill AM, Yeung P, Keesing S, Netto JA. Pet ownership and its influence on mental health in older adults. Aging Ment Health. 2020;24(10):1605-1612. doi: 10.1080/13607863.2019.1633620
Żebrowska M, Strohmaier S, Westgarth C, et al. Relationship between pet ownership and risk of high depressive symptoms in adolescence and young adulthood. J Affect Disord. 2023;323:554-561. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2022.11.070
Bolstad CJ, Porter B, Brown CJ, Kennedy RE, Nadorff MR. The Relation Between Pet Ownership, Anxiety, and Depressive Symptoms in Late Life: Propensity Score Matched Analyses. Anthrozoos. 2021;34(5):671-684. doi: 10.1080/08927936.2021.1926707
Bergen-Cico D, Smith Y, Wolford K, et al. Dog Ownership and Training Reduces Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms and Increases Self-Compassion Among Veterans: Results of a Longitudinal Control Study. J Altern Complement Med. 2018;24(12):1166-1175. doi: 10.1089/acm.2018.0179
Osei F, Block A, Wippert PM. Association of primary allostatic load mediators and metabolic syndrome (MetS): A systematic review. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2022;13:946740. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2022.946740
Tzivian L, Friger M, Kushnir T. Associations between stress and quality of life: differences between owners keeping a living dog or losing a dog by euthanasia. PLoS One. 2015;10(3):e0121081. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0121081
Westgarth C, Pinchbeck GL, Bradshaw JW, Dawson S, Gaskell RM, Christley RM. Factors associated with dog ownership and contact with dogs in a UK community. BMC Vet Res. 2007;3(1):5. doi: 10.1186/1746-6148-3-5
Martins CM, Mohamed A, Guimarães AMS, et al. Impact of demographic characteristics in pet ownership: modeling animal count according to owners income and age. Prev Vet Med. 2013;109(3-4):213-218. doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2012.10.006
Cay M, Ucar C, Senol D, et al. Effect of increase in cortisol level due to stress in healthy young individuals on dynamic and static balance scores. North Clin Istanbul. 2018;5(4):295-301. doi: 10.14744/nci.2017.42103
Vreeburg SA, Zitman FG, van Pelt J, et al. Salivary cortisol levels in persons with and without different anxiety disorders. Psychosom Med. 2010;72(4):340-347. doi: 10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181d2f0c8
Bertollo AG, Grolli RE, Plissari ME, et al. Stress and serum cortisol levels in major depressive disorder: a cross-sectional study. AIMS Neurosci. 2020;7(4):459-469. doi: 10.3934/Neuroscience.2020028
Chin B, Murphy MLM, Janicki-Deverts D, Cohen S. Marital status as a predictor of diurnal salivary cortisol levels and slopes in a community sample of healthy adults. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2017;78:68-75. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.01.016
Yang JH, Kweon SS, Lee YH, et al. Association between Alcohol Consumption and Serum Cortisol Levels: a Mendelian Randomization Study. J Korean Med Sci. 2021;36(30):e195. doi: 10.3346/jkms.2021.36.e195
Blaine SK, Milivojevic V, Fox H, Sinha R. Alcohol Effects on Stress Pathways. Can J Psychiatry. 2016;61(3):145-153. doi: 10.1177/0706743716632512
Badrick E, Bobak M, Britton A, Kirschbaum C, Marmot M, Kumari M. The relationship between alcohol consumption and cortisol secretion in an aging cohort. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93(3):750-757. doi: 10.1210/jc.2007-0737
Roelfsema F, van Heemst D, Iranmanesh A, Takahashi P, Yang R, Veldhuis JD. Impact of age, sex and body mass index on cortisol secretion in 143 healthy adults. Endocr Connect. 2017;6(7):500-509. doi: 10.1530/EC-17-0160
Zhao ZY, Lu FH, Xie Y, Fu YR, Bogdan A, Touitou Y. Cortisol secretion in the elderly. Influence of age, sex and cardiovascular disease in a Chinese population. Steroids. 2003;68(6):551-555. doi: 10.1016/s0039-128x(03)00083-7
Leproult R, Copinschi G, Buxton O, Van Cauter E. Sleep loss results in an elevation of cortisol levels the next evening. Sleep. 1997;20(10):865-870.
Capaldi Ii VF, Handwerger K, Richardson E, Stroud LR. Associations between sleep and cortisol responses to stress in children and adolescents: a pilot study. Behav Sleep Med. 2005;3(4):177-192. doi: 10.1207/s15402010bsm0304_1
Phillips DIW, Syddall HE, Cooper C, Hanson MA, Hertfordshire Cohort Study Group. Association of adult height and leg length with fasting plasma cortisol concentrations: evidence for an effect of normal variation in adrenocortical activity on growth. Am J Hum Biol. 2008;20(6):712-715. doi: 10.1002/ajhb.20803
Dyzma M, Boudjeltia KZ, Faraut B, Kerkhofs M. Neuropeptide Y and sleep. Sleep Med Rev. 2010;14(3):161-165. doi: 10.1016/j.smrv.2009.09.001
Singh C, Rihel J, Prober DA. Neuropeptide Y Regulates Sleep by Modulating Noradrenergic Signaling. Curr Biol. 2017;27(24):3796-3811.e5. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2017.11.018
Weintraub PG. The Importance of Publishing Negative Results. J Insect Sci. 2016;16(1). doi: 10.1093/jisesa/iew092
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2024 European Journal of Clinical and Experimental Medicine
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Our open access policy is in accordance with the Budapest Open Access Initiative (BOAI) definition: this means that articles have free availability on the public Internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from having access to the Internet itself.
All articles are published with free open access under the CC-BY Creative Commons attribution license (the current version is CC-BY, version 4.0). If you submit your paper for publication by the Eur J Clin Exp Med, you agree to have the CC-BY license applied to your work. Under this Open Access license, you, as the author, agree that anyone may download and read the paper for free. In addition, the article may be reused and quoted provided that the original published version is cited. This facilitates freedom in re-use and also ensures that Eur J Clin Exp Med content can be mined without barriers for the research needs.
