Reclaimed water – application directions in the industrial sector
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.15584/pjsd.2026.30.1.5Keywords:
reclaimed water from wastewater, remediation and reclamation of degraded areas, industrial sectorAbstract
The deficit of water resources, climate change, and the growing demand for water in industry are making reclaimed water from wastewater, including municipal wastewater, after advanced treatment, an alternative source of process water. This article discusses the concept of reclaimed water and the directions of its use. In modern systems, water recovery can reach over 80–98% thanks to the application of technologies such as RO (Reverse Osmosis) and ZLD (Zero Liquid Discharge), which play a key role in water treatment and wastewater management.
The main implementation barriers are identified as variability in water quality, the presence of contaminants, high capital and operational costs (CAPEX/OPEX), microbiological risks, formal and legal requirements, and social acceptance. The possibilities of using reclaimed water in industry are presented, including cooling processes, washing, fuel and hydrogen production, pressure testing, as well as remediation and reclamation of degraded areas. The importance of treatment technologies and the role of the end user in defining quality parameters are emphasized. It is noted that the implementation of such solutions depends on capital and operational costs as well as on environmental impact assessment, to avoid deterioration of other environmental components. The integration of water recovery with industrial processes is a key element of sustainable development strategies and adaptation to climate change.
Downloads
References
Ali H., Khan E., Sajad M.A. (2013). Phytoremediation of heavy metals. Concepts and applications. Chemosphere. 91(7). 869-881. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.01.075.
Angelakis A.N., Rose J.B. (2014). Evolution of water reuse through the millennia. Water. 6(5). 1093-1120. https://doi.org/10.3390/w6051093.
Areosa I., Martins T.A.E., Lourinho R., Batista M., Brito A.G., Amaral L. (2024). Treated wastewater reuse for irrigation: A feasibility study in Portugal. Science of the Total Environment. 954. 176698. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.176698.
Asano T., Burton F.L., Leverenz H.L., Tsuchihashi R., Tchobanoglous, G. (2007). Water reuse: Issues, technologies and applications. McGraw‑Hill.
Burian S.J., Edwards F.G. (2002). Historical perspectives of urban drainage. Water Science and Technology. 36(8-9).
Butzer K.W. (1976). Early hydraulic civilization in Egypt. University of Chicago Press.
EEA. (2021). Water resources across Europe - confronting water stress: an updated assessment. EEA Report 12/2021. ISBN 978‑92‑9480‑391‑7.
EEA. (2024). Europe’s state of water. Water scarcity conditions in Europe [dok. elektr.: https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/analysis/indicators/use-of-freshwater-resources-in-europe-1; data wejścia: 06.05.2026].
EPA. (2025). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2025). Risk-Based Framework for Developing Microbial Treatment Targets for Water Reuse. EPA/600/R-25/009. January 2025.
EPA. (2026). National water reuse action plan. United States Environmental Protection Agency [dok. elektr.: https://www.epa.gov/waterreuse/national-water-reuse-action-plan-online-platform; data wejścia: 06.05.2026].
Expósito A., Lorenzo Lopez A.M., Berbel J. (2024). How much does reclaimed wastewater cost? A comprehensive analysis for irrigation uses in the European Mediterranean context. Water Reuse. 14(3). 434-447. DOI: 10.2166/wrd.2024.040.
European Commission. European Environment Agency. EEA. (2019). Water reuse in Europe. Copenhagen: European Environment Agency.
European Commission. European Environment Agency. EEA. (2020). A new Circular Economy Action Plan: For a cleaner and more competitive Europe. Brussels: European Commission.
Eurostat. (2025). Water statistics [dok. elektr.: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Water_statistics; data wejścia: 06.05.2026].
FAO. (2003). Review of world water resources by country. FAO Water Reports No. 23. Rome.
FAO. (2026). AQUASTAT – FAO’s global information system on water and agriculture [dok. elektr.: https://www.fao.org/aquastat/en/; data wejścia: 06.05.2026].
Gandy M. (2014). The fabric of space: water, modernity, and the urban imagination. MIT Press.
Giammar D.E., Greene D.M., Mishrra A., Rao N., Sperling J.B., Talmadge M., Miara A., Sitterley K.A., Wilson A., Akar S., Kurup P., Stokes‑Draut J.R., Coughlin K. (2021). Cost and Energy Metrics for Municipal Water Reuse. ACS ES&T Engineering. 2(3). 489-507. DOI: 10.1021/acsestengg.1c00351.
Gleick P.H. (2014). The World’s Water. Volume 8: The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources. Island Press. Washington. DC.
GUS. (2024). Ochrona środowiska w 2023 r. [dok. elektr.: https://stat.gov.pl/obszary-tematyczne/srodowisko-energia/srodowisko/ochrona-srodowiska-w-2023-roku,12,7.html; data wejścia: 06.05.2026].
Hodge A.T. (2002). Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply. Duckworth. London.
IPCC. (2022). Climate change 2022: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Chapter 4: water. Cambridge University Press. DOI: 10.1017/9781009325844.006.
Israel Water Authority. (2015). Water Reuse in Israel: Policies, Technologies and Case Studies. Israel Water Authority. Tel Aviv.
Melosi M.V. (2000). The Sanitary City: Urban Infrastructure in America from Colonial Times to the Present. Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore.
National Research Council. (2012). Water Reuse: Potential for Expanding the Nation’s Water Supply. National Academies Press. Washington. DC.
OECD. (2015). Water and the circular economy. OECD Publishing. Paris.
OECD. (2024). Financing Water Supply, Sanitation and Flood Protection - chapter: “Costs of addressing emerging challenges in wastewater collection and treatment”. Paris: OECD Publishing.
Pedrero F., Kalavrouziotis I., Alarcón J.J., Koukoulakis P., Asano T. (2010). Use of treated municipal wastewater in irrigated agriculture-Review of some practices in Spain and Greece. Agricultural Water Management. 97(9). 1233-1241.
Rozporządzenie (UE) 2020/741 Parlamentu Europejskiego i Rady z dnia 25 maja 2020 r. w sprawie minimalnych wymogów dotyczących ponownego wykorzystywania wody. Dz.U. L 177 z 05.06.2020. 32-55.
Rice J., Bischel H.N., Luthy R.G. (2013). De facto wastewater reuse: Implications for drinking water treatment. Water Research. 47(4). 1211-1221.
Snow J. (1855). On the Mode of Communication of Cholera. John Churchill. London.
Tong T., Elimelech M. (2016). The Global Rise of Zero Liquid Discharge for Wastewater Management: Drivers, Technologies, and Future Directions. Environmental Science & Technology. 50(13). 6846-6855.
Toze S. (2006). Reuse of effluent water-benefits and risks. Agricultural Water Management. 80(1-3). 147-159.
United Nations. (2015). Transforming our world: the 2030 agenda for sustainable development [dok. elektr.: https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld/publication; data wejścia: 06.05.2026].
United Nations. (2023). Blueprint for acceleration: sustainable development goal 6 synthesis report on water and sanitation 2023. DOI: 10.18356/9789210026444.
United Nations. (2024). World water development report 2024: water for prosperity and peace. ISBN 978‑92‑3‑100657‑9.
UN‑Water. (2021). Progress on wastewater treatment – 2021 update. Global status and acceleration needs for SDG indicator 6.3.1.
US EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency). (2017). Water Recycling and Reuse. Washington, DC.
Vymazal J. (2014). Constructed wetlands for treatment of industrial wastewaters: A review. Ecological Engineering. 73. 724-751.
WHO. (2006). Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater. Vol. 1. ISBN 92‑4‑154682‑4.
WHO. (2017). Potable reuse: guidance for producing safe drinking‑water. ISBN 978‑92‑4‑151277‑0.
WISE. (2025). Freshwater information system for Europe [dok. elektr.: https://water.europa.eu/freshwater/freshwater/countries/uwwt/poland; data wejścia: 06.05.2026].
World Bank. (2025). Scaling water reuse: a tipping point for municipal and industrial use. Washington. DC. DOI: 10.1596/43326.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Polish Journal for Sustainable Development
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
