A review of earthworm research in Lancashire
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.15584/pjsd.2026.30.1.2Keywords:
Behaviour, Conservation, Ecosystem services, Interactions, Soil restorationAbstract
Earthworm-related research began at the University of Central Lancashire in 1994. This was initially on life history investigations of UK species, and use in soil restoration schemes, both long-term activities. Interspecific interactions became an interest, as did the use of various organic materials as a source of food. Collaborations with Finland, Poland and the USA led to investigations in boreal agroecosystems, mountain forests and cropping systems, respectively. Lumbricus terrestris was often a key species and, along with ecosystem service provision, its behaviour - mating, foraging, midden construction and settlement – was examined with novel use of visual recording. Field investigations were supported by laboratory experiments and the ability to maintain cultures of soil dwelling (endogeic and anecic) species was a vital element in research growth. Realisation that large species could be maintained and reproduce in small culture vessels was an important breakthrough. It allowed detailed knowledge of specimens with respect to origin, age, and reproductive status to be collected, which was used in a variety of investigations including DNA analysis linked to mating of cryptic species. Meanwhile, further collaborations were established in the field, particularly with Forest Research UK, where earthworm-tree interactions were investigated in a range of contexts. Other long-term monitoring was set up at Manchester Airport and at Down House in Kent, with many projects undertaken in Scotland, either on reclaimed industrial sites or on the Isle of Rum. Further laboratory work led to the development of a method for tagging earthworms, and interactions of earthworms with forest fungi was investigated. Ecotoxicological work also looked at the potential harm of silver nanoparticles in the soil. Throughout this time, solutions were sought to practical problems in research with the development of ideas such as Earthworm Inoculation Units and polyurethane casting of burrows. This period led to the completion of 20 PhDs and publication of over 150 peer-reviewed papers. Earthworm conservation is now under investigation through breeding of red-listed species and investigating the potential to hold cocoons in a “frozen ark”. With several Departmental/University name changes, the initial Earthworm Research Group has now become Ecological Engineering, at the University of Lancashire.
Downloads
References
Ashwood F., Butt K.R., Doick K.J, Vanguelova E.I. (2017). Investigating tree foliar preference by the earthworms Aporrectodea longa and Allolobophora chlorotica in reclaimed and loam soil. Applied Soil Ecology. 110. 109-117.
Ashwood F., Butt K.R., Doick K.J, Vanguelova E.I. (2018). Effects of composted green waste on soil quality and tree growth on a reclaimed landfill site. European Journal of Soil Biology. 87. 46-52.
Bain S.O., Butt K.R., Morris R.M. (1999). Survival and reproduction of Lumbricus terrestris L. in colliery spoil and sewage sludge. Pedobiologia. 43.729-734.
Bart S., Amoseé J., Lowe C.N., Mougin C., Péry A.R.R., Pelosi C. (2018). Aporrectodea caliginosa, a relevant earthworm species for a posteriori pesticide risk assessment: current knowledge and recommendations for culture and experimental design. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-2579-9
Bentley P.B., Butt K.R. (2026). Responses of the earthworms Lumbricus terrestris and Aporrectodea caliginosa to provision of wheat straw across a range of sizes. European Journal of Soil Biology. 128. 103799. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2025.103799
Blouin M., Hodson M.E., Aranda Delgado E., Baker G., Brussaard L., Butt K.R., Dai J., Dendooven L., Pérès G., Tondoh J., Cluzeau D., Brun J.J. (2013). A review of earthworm impact on soil function and ecosystem services. European Journal of Soil Science. 64. 161-182.
Brami C., Glover A.R., Butt K.R., Lowe C.N. (2017). Effects of silver nanoparticle on survival, biomass change and avoidance behaviour of the endogeic earthworm Allolobophora chlorotica. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 141. 64-69.
Butt K.R. (1997). Reproduction and growth of the earthworm Allolobophora chlorotica (Savigny, 1826) in controlled environments. Pedobiologia. 41. 362-367.
Butt K.R. (1998). Interactions between selected earthworm species: A preliminary, laboratory-based study. Applied Soil Ecology. 9. 75-79.
Butt K.R. (1999). Effects of thermally dried sewage granules on earthworms and vegetation during pot and field trials. Bioresource Technology. 67. 149-154.
Butt K.R. (2008). Earthworms in soil restoration: lessons learned from UK case studies of land reclamation. Restoration Ecology. 16. 637-641.
Butt K.R. (2011). The Earthworm Inoculation Unit (EIU) technique: Development and use in soil improvement over two decades. Chapter 6 (pp 87-105) in: (Karaca, A: Ed.) Biology of Earthworms, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg.
Butt K.R. (in prep.) Observations of earthworms at the Wakes: Chapter 11 in: Gilbert White and his contexts. Liverpool University Press. Eds. B. Carey and S. Holt.
Butt K.R., Briones M. J. I., Lowe C.N. (2009). Is tagging with visual implant elastomer a reliable technique for marking earthworms? Pesquisa Agropecuaria Brasileira. 44. 969-974.
Butt K.R., Callaham M.A.Jr, Loudermilk E.L., Blaik R. (2016). Action of earthworms on flint burial: A return to Darwin’s estate. Applied Soil Ecology. 104. 157-162.
Butt K.R., Callaham M.A.Jr., McLauchlin J., Pérès G., O’Rourke A., Euteneuer P. (in prep. ISEE13c). Flint burial by earthworms at Darwin’s home: 18 years of monitoring (13th International Symposium on Earthworm Ecology. (ISEE13 - 2026).
Butt K.R., Frederickson J., Morris R.M. (1994). The life cycle of the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris L. (Oligochaeta: Lumbricidae) in culture. European Journal of Soil Biology. 30. 49-54.
Butt K.R., Gilbert J. A., Kostecka J., Lowe C.N., Quigg, S. M., Euteneuer P. (2022). Two decades of monitoring Translocated Grassland at Manchester airport. European Journal of Soil Biology. 113. 103443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2022.103443
Butt K.R., Garczyńska M., Mazur-Pączka A., Pączka G., Kostecka J. (in prep. ISEE13a). Earthworm strategies for winter survival in temperate, mountain soils. (13th International Symposium on Earthworm Ecology. (ISEE13 - 2026).
Butt K.R., Lang F., Ehrmann O., Healey R., Nuutinen V. (2026). Nocturnal soil-surface behaviour of a giant earthworm in the Black Forest, SW Germany. European Journal of Soil Biology. 129. 103828. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2026.103828
Butt K.R., Lang F., Ehrmann O., Healey R., Nuutinen V. (in prep. ISEE13b). Mating of the giant earthworm Lumbricus badensis: An enigma? (13th International Symposium on Earthworm Ecology. (ISEE13 - 2026).
Butt K.R., Lang F., Ehrmann O., Kobel-Lamparski A., Lamparski F., Nuutinen V. (2021). Field and laboratory investigations of Lumbricus badensis ecology and behaviour. Pedosphere. 31. 471-474. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1002-0160(20)60088-1
Butt K.R., Lowe C.N. (2004). Anthropic influences on earthworm distribution, Rum National Nature Reserve, Scotland. European Journal of Soil Biology. 40. 63-72.
Butt K.R., Lowe C.N. (2007a). Presence of earthworm species within and beneath Lumbricus terrestris (L.) middens. European Journal of Soil Biology. 43. S57-S60.
Butt K.R., Lowe C.N. (2007b). A viable technique for tagging earthworms with visible implant elastomer. Applied Soil Ecology. 35. 454-457.
Butt K.R., Lowe C.N., Beasley T., Hanson I., Keynes R. (2008). Darwin’s earthworms revisited. European Journal of Soil Biology. 44. 255-259.
Butt K.R., Lowe C.N., Callaham M.A. Jr., Nuutinen V. (2016). An oasis of fertility on a barren island: Earthworms at Papadil, Isle of Rum. Glasgow Naturalist. 26. 13-20. http://www.glasgownaturalhistory.org.uk/gn26_2/earthworms_butt.pdf
Butt K.R., Lowe C.N., Duncanson P. (2014). Earthworms of an urban cemetery in Preston: General survey and burrowing of Lumbricus terrestris. Zeszyty Naukowe PTIE i PTG. 17. 23-30.
Butt K.R., Lowe C.N., Frederickson J., Moffat A. J. (2004). The development of sustainable earthworm populations at Calvert Landfill Site UK. Land Degradation and Development. 15. 27-36.
Butt K.R., Méline C., Pérès G. (2020). Marine macroalgae as food for earthworms: Growth and selection experiments across ecotypes. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 27. 33493-33499. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-07666-y
Butt K.R., Nieminen M. A., Sirén T., Ketoja E., Nuutinen V. (2005). Population and behavioural level responses of arable soil earthworms to boardmill sludge application. Biology and Fertility of Soils. 42. 163-167.
Butt K.R., Nuutinen V. (2005). The Dawn of the Dew worm. Biologist. 52. 218-223.
Butt K.R., Nuutinen V. (2021). Earthworms in past and present agricultural landscapes of Hebridean Scotland. European Journal of Soil Biology. 104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2020.103273
Butt K.R., Nuutinen V. (in prep. ISEE13). Reproductive relationships between the two epi-anecic earthworms Lumbricus terrestris (L.) and Lumbricus friendi (Cognetti): Potential pre- and postzygotic isolating mechanisms (13th International Symposium on Earthworm Ecology. (ISEE13 - 2026).
Butt K.R., Nuutinen V., Sirén T. (2003). Resource distribution and surface activity of adult Lumbricus terrestris L. in an experimental system. Pedobiologia. 47. 548-553.
Butt K.R., Quigg S.M. (2021). Earthworm community development in soils of a reclaimed steelworks. Pedosphere. 31 (3). 384-390.
Callaham M.A.Jr., Butt K.R., Lowe C.N. (2012). Stable isotope evidence for marine-derived avian inputs of nitrogen into detrital foodwebs on the Isle of Rum, Scotland, UK. European Journal of Soil Biology. 52. 78-83.
Darwin C. (1881). The formation of vegetable mould through the action of worms. John Murray. London.
Dupont L., Audusseau H., Porco D., Butt K.R. (2022). Mitonuclear discordance and patterns of reproductive isolation in a complex of simultaneously hermaphroditic species, the Allolobophora chlorotica case study. Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 35. 831-843.
Dupont L., Lazrek F., Porco D., King R.A., Rougerie R., Symondson W.O.C., Livet A., Richard B., Decaëns T., Butt K.R., Mathieu J. (2011). New insight into the genetic structure of the Allolobophora chlorotica aggregate in Europe using microsatellite and mitochondrial data. Pedobiologia. 54. 217-224.
Edwards C.A. (1988). Breakdown of animal, vegetable and industrial organic wastes by earthworms. pp. 21-31 In; Earthworms in Waste and Environmental Management. Eds. C. A. Edwards & F. Neuhauser. SPB Academic Publishing. The Hague. The Netherlands.
Euteneuer P., Butt K.R. (2025). Potential protocol for earthworm monitoring under adverse soil conditions or in small Plots. Applied Soil Ecology. 206. 105828.
Euteneuer P., Butt K.R., Wagentristl W., Mayerová M., Fér M. (2024). What is the best way to measure earthworm-processed soil? A comparison of common water stable aggregates, the smartphone app MOULDER, and a novel SlakeLight method. Applied Soil Ecology. 201. 105517.
Euteneuer P., Wagentristl H., Hood-Nowotny R., Neugschwandtner R.W., Bodner G., Hofer A., Windisch M., Weiler E., Widy S., Butt K.R. (2026). Contribution of Lumbricus terrestris enhancement to soil fertility and maize and wheat yields in soil tillage systems. Soil Tillage Research. 107087. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2026.107087
Euteneuer P., Wagentristl H., Steinkellner S., Fuchs M., Zaller J. G., Piepho H-P., Butt K.R. (2020). Contrasting effects of cover crops on earthworms: Results from field monitoring and laboratory experiments on growth, reproduction and food choice. European Journal of Soil Biology. 100. 103225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2020.103225
Forbes V.E., Agatz A., Ashauer R., Butt K.R., Capowiez Y., Duquesne S., Ernst G., Focks A., Gergs A., Hodson M., Holmstrup M., Johnston A., Meli M., Nickisch D., Pieper S., Rakel K., Reed M., Römbke J., Schäfer R.B., Thorbek P., Spurgeon D., van den Berg F., Van Gestel K., Zorn M., Roeben V. (2020). Mechanistic effect modeling of earthworms in the context of pesticide risk assessment: Synthesis of the FORESEE Workshop. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management.17 (2). 352-363. https://doi.org/10.1002/ieam.4825
Gerard S., Decaëns T., Butt K.R., Briones M.J.I., Capowiez Y., Cluzeau D., Hoeffner K., Le Bayon R-C., Marchán D.F., Marsden C., Muys B., Pelosi C., Pérès G., Phillips H.R.P., Santini L., Thuiller W., Hedde M. (2025). Putting earthworm conservation on the map: Shortfalls and solutions for developing earthworm conservation. Conservation Biology. 302. 110911. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2024.110911
Grigoropoulou N., Butt K.R. (2010). Field investigations of Lumbricus terrestris spatial distribution and dispersal through monitoring of manipulated, enclosed plots. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 42. 40-47.
Grigoropoulou N., Butt K.R., Lowe C.N. (2008). Effects of adult Lumbricus terrestris on cocoons and hatchlings in Evans' boxes. Pedobiologia. 51. 343-349.
Hoeffner K., Bergerot B., Butt K.R., Gérard S., Pelosi C., Pérès G., Briones M.J.I., Decaëns T., Delaveau N., Guillocheau S., Hedde M., Hotte H., Le Bayon R.C., Muys B., Phillips H.R.P., Poupelin M., Cluzeau D. (2025). Reliability of earthworm data from citizen science: Lessons from 7 years of a French National Monitoring Protocol. Applied Soil Ecology. 214 106329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2025.106329
IUCN Earthworms No date. IUCN SSC Earthworm Specialist Group | IUCN (accessed 02/04/26).
King R.A., Vaughan I.P., Bell J.R., Bohan D.A., Symondson W.O.C. (2010). Prey choice by carabid beetles feeding on an earthworm community analysed using species- and lineage- specific PCR primers. Molecular Ecology. 19. 1721-1732.
Kister J.M., Lowe C.N., Butt K.R. (2023). Potential ecotoxicological effects of silver nanoparticles and silver sulphide on the endogeic earthworm Aporrectodea caliginosa (Savigny 1826). Ecotoxicology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10646-023-02705-z
Kostecka J., Butt K.R. (2001). Ecology of the earthworm Allolobophora carpathica from field and laboratory studies. European Journal of Soil Biology. 37. 255-258.
Kostecka J., Butt K.R. (2015). Field and laboratory studies of the earthworm Dendrobaena alpina (Rosa, 1884). Journal of Ecological Engineering. 16. 213-217.
Kostecka J., Butt K.R., Mazur-Pączka A., Pączka G., Garczyńska M., Podolak A. (2019). Aspects of the ecology of earthworm Eisenia lucens (Waga, 1857) studied in the field and in laboratory culture. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-06187-7
Lampert M. (2023). Reclaiming landfill to woodland: Ecosystem service provision using trees, earthworms and composted green waste. Unpublished PhD Thesis. University of Central Lancashire.
Landworm. No date. FRB_CESAB_landworm_EN_web.pdf (accessed 02/04/26).
Lowe C.N., Butt K.R. (1999). Interspecific interactions between earthworms: A laboratory-based investigation. Pedobiologia. 43. 808-817.
Lowe C.N., Butt K.R. (2002). Growth of hatchling earthworms in the presence of adults: interactions in laboratory culture. Biology and Fertility of Soils. 35. 204-209.
Lowe C.N., Butt K.R. (2003). Influence of food particle size on inter- and intra-specific interactions of Allolobophora chlorotica (Savigny) and Lumbricus terrestris (L.). Pedobiologia. 47. 574-577.
Lowe C.N., Butt K.R. (2005). Culture techniques for soil dwelling earthworms: A review. Pedobiologia. 49. 401-413.
Lowe C.N., Butt K.R. (2007a). Earthworm culture, maintenance and species selection in chronic ecotoxicological studies: A critical review. European Journal of Soil Biology. 43. 281-288.
Lowe C.N., Butt K.R. (2007b). Life cycle traits of the dimorphic earthworm species Allolobophora chlorotica (Savigny 1826) under controlled laboratory conditions. Biology and Fertility of Soils. 43. 495-499.
Lowe C.N., Butt K.R., Cheynier K.Y-M. (2016). Assessment of avoidance behaviour by earthworms (Lumbricus rubellus and Octolasion cyaneum) in linear pollution gradients. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 124. 324-328.
Lowe C.N. Butt K.R., Cheynier K.Y-M. (2017). Development of a field-based earthworm mark-release-recapture technique for biomonitoring. Polish Journal for Sustainable Development. 21. 33-40. http://www2.univ.rzeszow.pl/wbr/zeszyty/en/index.html
Lowe C.N., Butt K.R., Sherman R. L. (2023). Chapter 21 - Current and potential benefits of mass earthworm culture. In: Mass Production of Beneficial Organisms - Invertebrates and Entomopathogens. Editors: J. A. Morales-Ramos, M. Guadalupe Rojas, D. I. Shapiro-Ilan. Elsevier (Academic Press). London. 581-597. ISBN 9780128221068
Millennium Seedbank. No date. Millennium Seed Bank | Kew (accessed 02/04/26).
Moffat A.J., Hutchings T.R., Tubby I., Butt K.R., Lowe C.N. (2008). Experimental woodland establishment on brick clays in southern England. Land Contamination and Reclamation. 16. 181-190.
Montecchio L., Scattolin L., Squartini A., Butt K.R. (2015). Potential spread of forest soil-borne fungi through earthworm consumption and casting. iForest - Biogeosciences and Forestry. https://doi.org/10.3832/ifor1217-008
Natural History Museum (NHM). No date. Visit | Natural History Museum (accessed 02/04/26).
Nuutinen V., Butt K.R. 2003. Interaction of Lumbricus terrestris L. burrows with field subdrains. Pedobiologia. 47. 578-581.
Nuutinen V., Butt K.R. (2009). Worms from the cold: lumbricid life stages in boreal clay during frost. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 41. 1580-1582.
Nuutinen V., Butt K.R. (2019). Earthworm dispersal of plant litter across the surface of agricultural soils. Ecology. 100(7). 2019. e02669.
Nuutinen V., Butt K.R., Hyvaluoma J., Ketoja E., Mikola J. (2017). Soil fauna and structural responses to the settlement of a semi-sedentary earthworm Lumbricus terrestris in an arable clay field. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 115. 285-296.
Nuutinen V., Butt K.R., Jauhiainen L. (2011). Field margins and management affect settlement and spread of an introduced dew-worm (L. terrestris L.) population. Pedobiologia. 54. 167-172.
Nuutinen V., Butt K.R., Jauhiainen L., Shipitalo M, Sirén T. (2014). Dew-worms in white nights: high latitude light conditions constrain earthworm (Lumbricus terrestris) behaviour. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 72. 66-74.
Nuutinen V., Kaseva J., Lemola R., Tähtikarhu M., Butt K.R., Lill J-O., Slotte J.M.K., Uusitalo R. (2026). Does an increase in number of deep burrowing earthworms enhance subsurface nutrient losses? European Journal of Soil Science. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ejss.70293
Parkes M.A. (2025). The application of Kelp (Laminaria digitata) in marginal agroecosystems. Unpublished PhD Thesis. University of Central Lancashire.
Phillips H.R.P., Hoeffner K., Muys B., Le Bayon R-C., Cluzeau D., Butt K.R., Maréchal J., Briones M.J.I., Decaëns,T., Hedde M., Gérard S., Pérès G., Petit Dit-Grezeriat L., Pelosi C. (2025). Urban earthworm communities driven more by climate and elevation than urbanisation intensity. Urban Ecosystems. 28. 210. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-025-01826-z
Rajapaksha N.S.S., Butt K.R., Vanguelova E., Moffat A.J. (2013a). Effects of Short Rotation Forestry on soil faunal community development. Forest Ecology and Management. 309. 96-104.
Rajapaksha N.S.S., Butt K.R., Vanguelova E., Moffat A.J. (2013b). Earthworm selection of Short Rotation Forestry leaf litter through preference testing and direct observation. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 67. 12-19.
Simon B., Dekemati I., Ibrahim H.T.M., Modiba M.M., Birkás M., Grósz J., Kulhanek M., Neugschwandtner R., Hage-Ahmed K., Butt K.R., Euteneuer P. (2025). Impact of tillage practices and soil texture on soil health and earthworms in the Pannonian region: A comparative study from Austria and Hungary. Applied Soil Ecology. 206. 105863.
Shipitalo M.J., Butt K.R. (1999). Occupancy and geometrical properties of Lumbricus terrestris L. burrows affecting infiltration. Pedobiologia. 43. 782- 794.
Sturm L., Wagentristl H., Neugschwandtner R., Huber C., Butt K.R., Euteneuer P. (2026). Earthworms are sustained in a 116 year old rye monoculture with ploughing by provision of soil organic carbon from farmyard manure. European Journal of Soil Biology. 128. 103815. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2026.103815
White G. (1788). The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne. Benjamin White. London.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Polish Journal for Sustainable Development
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
